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</table> <br> <br> <hr align="center" size="1"> <br> <a href="http://store.aciusa.org"><img src="http://www.aciusa.org/images/lower-pricing-ad.gif" alt="Discount pricing on IPC training course J-STD-001, 610, 600, 7711, 7712" width="150" height="288" border="1"></a> <a href="http://www.empf.org/empfasis/subscribe.htm"> </a> <p class="style9"><script language="JavaScript"> <!-- function random_imglink(){ var myimages=new Array() myimages[1]="http://www.aciusa.org/wwwaci/html/random/boot.gif" myimages[2]="http://www.aciusa.org/wwwaci/html/random/lead.gif" myimages[3]="http://www.aciusa.org/wwwaci/html/random/help.gif" myimages[4]="http://www.aciusa.org/wwwaci/html/random/service.gif" myimages[5]="http://www.empf.org/empfasis/archive/images/subscribe2.gif" var imagelinks=new Array() imagelinks[1]="http://www.aciusa.org/courses/train_boot.htm" imagelinks[2]="http://www.empf.org/empfasis/leadfree.htm" imagelinks[3]="http://www.empf.org/helpline/helpline.htm" imagelinks[4]="http://www.aciusa.org/ana/ana_home.htm" imagelinks[5]="http://www.empf.org/empfasis/subscribe.htm" var ry=Math.floor(Math.random()*myimages.length) if (ry==0) ry=1 document.write('<a href='+'"'+imagelinks[ry]+'"'+'><img src="'+myimages[ry]+'" border=0></a>') } random_imglink() //--> </script></p> </div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><div align="center"><span class="style5">ACI Technologies Inc.</span><br> One International Plaza<br> Suite 600 <br> Philadelphia, PA 19113 <br> (610) 362-1200 <br> <span class="style6">FAX: </span>(610) 362-1290<br> <span class="style6">HELPLINE: </span>(610) 362-1320<br> <span class="style6">WEBSITE: </span><a href="http://www.empf.org">www.empf.org</a><br> <a href="http://www.aciusa.org">www.aciusa.org</a></div></td> </tr> </table> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p><br> <br> </p> <div align="center"> <p align="center" class="style7">Michael D. Frederickson<br> <strong><em>EMPF Director </em></strong><br> <br> Barry Thaler, PhD.<br> bthaler@aciusa.org <br> <strong><em>Empfasis Technical Editor<br> </em></strong><br> Paul Bratt<br> pbratt@aciusa.org <br> <strong><em>Empfasis Editor</em></strong><br> </p> <p align="center" class="style7"><img src="http://www.empf.org/empfasis/archive/images/iab_sm.gif" alt="IAB" width="100" height="52"><br> <span class="style9">Industrial Advisory Board</span><br> <span class="style14"><em>Gerald R. Aschoff</em>, The Boeing Company<br> <em>Dennis M. Kox</em>, Raytheon<br> <em>Gregory X. Krieger</em>, BAE Systems<br> <em>Edward A. Morris</em>, Lockheed Martin<br> <em>Jane Krueger </em>, Rockwell Collins<br> <em>Gary Kirchner</em>, Honeywell<br> <em>Andrew Paradise</em>, Northrop Grumman<br> <em>Richard Kidwell </em>, ITT Industries</span></p> </div> <p align="center" class="style7"><br> </p> </div> </td> </tr> </table> </div></td> <!-- InstanceBeginEditable name="Body1" --><td width="70%" rowspan="2" valign="top"><div class="body_style" id="body_content"> <p><img src="images/fuel.gif" width="649" height="87" alt="title"></p> <p class="body_text"><span class="style20">T</span>he U.S. warfighter utilizes high performance electronic systems to gain tactical advantages while in the field. As these systems advance technologically, their power consumption increases as well. This has increased the demand for inexpensive, small, lightweight, moveable, and quiet energy sources. While batteries can fill the power needs below 200 watts and generators can fill power needs above 500 watts, the 300 watts power niche for non-stationary power is not easily filled. Fuel cells have the potential to fill this technology gap between batteries and generators for a low power, extended run time, silent power source (Table 1-1).<sup>1</sup></p> <p align="center"><img src="images/table1-1.gif"></p> <p>The challenge for the warfighter disconnected from grid power or vehicle is to carry enough primary batteries or rechargeable secondary batteries during missions that last longer than a few days. Recharging stations need a fueled military tactical generator (the smallest is a 2 kW, 138 pounds, and 6 cubic feet) which must also be transported by the soldier. Fuel cells are an alternative that can be made for smaller power ranges and are lighter than generators.<sup>2</sup></p> <p>Remote sensors and silent watch must be quiet and have extended run times. While batteries need to be recharged or replaced and generators are noisy, fuel cells are both quiet and can be quickly refueled for extended run times. Their run time is only dependent on the size of the fuel tank.</p> <p>In comparison to batteries, fuel cells can provide the smaller volume and lower weight needed for an unmanned aerial vehicle such as the Navy's Ion Tiger (Figure 1-1). Equipped with a tank of compressed hydrogen, fuel cells can also provide longer run times.<sup>3</sup></p> <p align="center"><img src="images/fig1-1.gif"></p> <p><b>Fuel Cell Advantages</b></p> <p>Fuel cells offer greater fuel efficiencies than generators allowing increased power efficiency and reducing the burden of fuel transportation to remote locations. The theoretical fuel cell efficiency estimates are as high as 83% compared to the efficiency of a traditional JP-8 (a kerosene-based jet propellant) fueled generator at 16 to 20%. For warfighter-carried reformed methanol fuel cell systems, the actual efficiencies are lower at only 24%.<sup>2</sup></p> <p>Fuel cells also produce lower exhaust emissions than generators for carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides (NOX), and sulfur oxides (SOX) and can be considered for indoor applications without dedicated exhaust pipes. Run times can be extended by using larger fuel tanks or by switching fuel tanks.</p> <p>To become commercially viable beyond niche applications, the price per kilowatt must be near the price point of batteries and generators. Currently, automotive combustion engines cost approximately $25 to $35 per kW. For expanding fuel cell applications, the price point is $400 to $750 per kW with the ultimate goal of $30 per kW.<sup>4</sup></p> <p>Barriers to reducing fuel cell costs include small volume production lines, no steady customer base, and the high cost of materials. For example, the cost of platinum (Pt) catalyst materials can contribute to half the proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell cost. A steady customer base, especially a commercial customer, would stimulate the creation of high volume automated tooling and would reduce manufacturing cost per fuel cell.</p> <p>Types of fuel cells that interest the Department of Defense (DoD) are PEM fuel cells, high temperature PEM (>160ºC) fuel cells, direct methanol PEM fuel cells (DMFC), reformed methanol PEM fuel cells (RMFC), and solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC). Table 1-2 lists the different types of fuels available and their associated challenges for use in DoD applications.</p> <p align="center"><img src="images/table1-2.gif"></p> <p>Hydrogen offers the greatest efficiencies for DoD applications, but production and distribution of hydrogen limits its use in military applications. Hydrogen carriers like methanol and ethanol offer advantages because liquids are easy to store, their theoretical mass energy density is high, and they can be reformed at the PEM operating temperatures. JP-8 and JP-5 are fuels with high hydrogen content and have the advantage of already being in the DoD supply chain. Fuel cells are sensitive to sulfur poisoning and JP-8 and JP-5 require sulfur removal and high temperature reforming.</p> <p><b>PEM Fuel Cells</b></p> <p>Low temperature (<100ºC) PEM fuel cells can be worn by a warfighter. The advantages of high temperature (>160ºC) over low temperature PEM fuel cells are greater fuel efficiencies, performance, water management, tolerance of contaminants, and kinetics of electrodic reactions. A barrier to expanding the commercial viability of PEM fuel cells is the high costs of Pt catalysts (which can contribute up to 50% of the total PEM fuel cell cost).5 An additional barrier is the carbon monoxide poisoning of the Pt based cathodes. Pure hydrogen fuel allows for higher efficiency but production, storage, and distribution of hydrogen is not as readily acceptable for defense applications as other fuels. Alcohols, such as methanol, are alternative fuels for PEM fuel cells. Liquids are easier to store than gases and the energy density of methanol is 10 times greater than compressed hydrogen and 15 times greater than lithium-ion batteries.</p> <p><b>Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC)</b></p> <p>The advantages of solid oxide fuel cells are their fuel flexibility. They can be run on a variety of hydrogen rich fuels, including logistics fuels (JP-8, JP-5) already in the supply chain. Their high operating temperature (>800ºC) allows for internal fuel reforming and decreases their sensitivity to sulfur poisoning. The high specific power density and ability to operate on sulfur containing military fuels make SOFCs especially viable for Naval applications.<sup>6</sup></p> <p>A Navy ManTech study is currently underway; it will focus on the affordability and manufacturability of fuel cells, particularly SOFC and PEM fuel cells. This effort will include documentation of the best practices, identification of manufacturing technology gaps and issues as well as the development of a roadmap to address those gaps and issues. Objectives also include the examination of methods to increase fuel cell producibility and decrease manufacturing costs for the commercial industry in areas applicable for Navy and other DoD applications.</p> <p>References:</p> <ul type=1> <li> Hamlen, Robert, and Thomas Nycz. "Alternative Fuels for Military Portable Power." Power Sources Conference 2010. US Army Research, Development and Engineering Command, 18 June 2010. Web. 22 July 2010. <a href="https://www.powersourcesconference.com">https://www.powersourcesconference.com</a>. </li> <li> De Jong, Marnie, Michael Dominick, J. J. Kowal, Jonathan Novoa, and Shailesh Shah. "Fuel Systems for Military Battery Charging Applications." Proc. of the 44th Power Sources Conference, Las Vegas. 2010. 557-60. Print.</li> <li> Department of Defense, and National Defense Industrial Association (NDIA) Manufacturing Division. POWER SOURCES TECHNOLOGY ROADMAP. Tech. no. #IMTI2010009. Oak Ridge: Integrated Manufacturing Technology Initiative (IMTI), 2009. Print.</li> <li> Department of Energy. "Fuel Cells." Encyclopedia of Earth. Cutler J. Cleveland, 19 Oct. 2006. Web. 22 July 2010. <a href="http://www.eoearth.org/article/Fuel_cells">http://www.eoearth.org/article/Fuel_cells</a>. </li> <li> Adusumilli, Sumana, Javier Parondo, Sundara L. Ghatty, and B. Rambabu. "Carbon Supported Cathode Catalysts for PBI-based HT-PEMFCs." Proc. of the 44th Power Sources Conference, Las Vegas. 2010. 365-68. Print. </li> <li> Day, Michael J., and Scott L. Swartz. "NexTech's FlexCell Planar SOFC Technology." Proc. of the 44th Power Sources Conference, Las Vegas. 2010. 405-08. Print.</li> </ul> <p class="body_text"><img src="../../archive/updated/rmorris.gif"></p> </div> </td> <!-- InstanceEndEditable --> </tr> <tr> </tr> </table> <br> <table width="100%" border="0"> <tr> <td colspan="2"><div align="center"> <p><em>The EMPF is a U.S. Navy-sponsored National Electronics Manufacturing Center of Excellence focused on the development,<br> application, and transfer of new electronics manufacturing technology by partnering with industry,<br> academia, and government centers and laboratories in the U.S</em></p> </div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="footer">ACI Technologies, Inc. - - <a href="http://www.aciusa.org">www.aciusa.org</a> - - (610)362-1200</td> <td><div align="right"><a href="http://www.navymantech.com"><img src="http://www.empf.org/empfasis/archive/images/mantech.gif" width="144" height="42" border="0"></a></div></td> </tr> </table> <div align="right"> <!-- Start of StatCounter Code --> <script type="text/javascript" language="javascript"> var sc_project=350643; var sc_partition=1; </script> <script type="text/javascript" language="javascript" src="http://www.statcounter.com/counter/counter.js"></script> <noscript> <a href="http://www.statcounter.com/free_hit_counter.html" target="_blank"><img src="http://c2.statcounter.com/counter.php?sc_project=350643&amp;amp;java=0" alt="hit counter" border="0"></a> </noscript> <a href="http://www.empf.org/sitemap.htm"><em>[site map] </em></a> <!-- End of StatCounter Code --> <!-- Start of StatCounter Code --> <script type="text/javascript" language="javascript"> var sc_project=1902214; var sc_invisible=1; var sc_partition=17; var sc_security="759b802c"; </script> <script type="text/javascript" language="javascript" src="http://www.statcounter.com/counter/counter.js"></script><noscript><a href="http://www.statcounter.com/" target="_blank"><img src="http://c18.statcounter.com/counter.php?sc_project=1902214&java=0&security=759b802c&invisible=1" alt="website statistics" border="0"></a> </noscript> <!-- End of StatCounter Code --> </div> </body> <!-- InstanceEnd --></html>